Family theories free essay sample

In this answer, I am going to discuss about the conjugal relationship in modern industrial societies. This means I will assess the claim that conjugal relationships are based on equality in modern industrial societies. I plan to structure my answer from housework and childcare, power and money management. The hours worked between husband and wife become more equal by the increased participation by women in the labour market have led to more equality in modern family life. This view is highly supported by many sociologists like Young and Willmott who suggest that the family is becoming more symmetrical and therefore, is in fact becoming more egalitarian via a ‘march of progress. ’ They suggest that the family is gradually improving in terms of equality as there has been a trend away from segregated conjugal roles and more of a shift towards joint ones. This they argue is due to major social changes in that women are more financially dependant with employment opportunities and so there is less of a need to rely on extended kin. We will write a custom essay sample on Family theories or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This is further explained by Gershuny who suggests that because women have these employment opportunities, they are more likely to do less domestic work. This is shown by the item as it suggests that ‘men were making more of an effort to do housework when their wives were in full-time employment. By this change of position for women, it has meant that men are now more responsible for different household tasks therefore suggesting that equality within modern family life is evident and so this view seems correct. He emphasises the change in social values as a reason for this which is also supported by Sullivan’s study (2000) which found an increase in equal division of labour. This supports Young and Willmott’s ‘march of progress’ view that conjugal roles are becoming more symmetrical; thus suggesting that the view of equal gender roles and relationships is likely. Also, due to post-modern society, there are better living conditions compared to those during industrialisation and so this has drawn the men back into the family and thus has enabled them to help with housework and childcare as well as providing leisure time; enhancing equality in relationships. The social changes have meant that equality is becoming evident and so the statement seems highly likely. However, the functionalist view of equality in modern family life has been highly criticised particularly by feminists like Ann Oakley (1974). Oakley rejects the ‘March of progress’ view described by Young and Willmott as she suggests that this is simply exaggerated as we still live in a patriarchal society where women do most of the housework. She suggested that the methodology used by Young and Willmott was hardly convincing as their questions lacked in detail. In Oakley’s research, she found only 15% of husbands had a high participation in housework, showing how the statement is flawed as this clearly does not show evidence of equality in relationships and gender roles. Despite Gershuny suggesting that paid work entitled equality for women, Oakley suggested that this was only an extension of the housewife role. Therefore, unlike Parsons claim of a ‘natural’ role, feminists argue that this was socially constructed to enforce dependence on men which became worse with industrialisation as it forced women to stay within the home. Thus, it is clear that joint conjugal roles are not as ‘joint’ as functionalists initially suggested they were as the social changes have only exacerbated the role of women suggesting this so called equality does not exist. Besides, other feminists like Elsa Ferri and Kate Smith (1996) suggest that the changed position of women in terms of employment has only created a dual burden as they now have to undertake paid work as well as the unpaid housewife role. Ferri and Smith suggest that unlike Gershuny, increased employment has had little impact of the domestic labour as fewer than 4% of families had a father responsible for childcare. Therefore, women still remain responsible for the children as well as their employment responsibility; clearly suggesting that modern family life is not as equal as it seems. The dual burden is also supported by Dunscombe and Marsden’s theory of a triple burden in that women are expected to do the double shift of housework and paid work but also the caring of the emotional welfare of the family. This clearly disputes Gershuny’s idea that women are more equal due to employment as the triple burden means that they in fact gain more responsibilities than losing them. Next, feminists ‘point to inequalities of power and control that persist in modern family relationships’ as a key reason for inequality; again challenging the statement. Allan suggests that ideological factors limit women’s power in that they are ‘disadvantaged from the start. ’ This suggests that the family is always going to be founded on inequality; thus suggesting that the view of equality is limited. This is supported by Barrett and McIntosh who suggest that men gain far more from women’s domestic work than they give in financial support and that in turn this support often comes with ‘strings’ attached. Also, men are usually the ones who make decisions about finances despite some families being dual-earners. This is due to the fact that women are statistically still paid on average less than men; enhancing male economic power. Therefore you can question the extent of equality in modern family life. Resources are also said to be shared unequally like Kempson’s (1994) study among low-income families. This leaves women in poverty and so restricts their power in the family which creates an atmosphere of inequality in conjugal relationships. This is further explained by feminists Pahl and Vogler (1993) who focused on the effects of decision making within the family through ideas like ‘pooling’ and ‘allowance systems. They found a 31% increase in pooling where both partners have joint decision responsibility as well as a decline in allowance systems. However, it was still evident that men usually made huge financial decisions. Edgell also supports this as the levels of decision making are not equal due to the male economic power that still exists. Therefore, women have less say in the decisions and thus it is obvious that the view that gender roles and relationships are becoming more equal is incorrect as inequality in pay and decisions still exist. Similarly, this inequality of power has led to domestic violence which clearly shows how inequality is evident in that relationships are being gender dominated. Radical feminists like Millett and Firestone (1970) use domestic violence as a way to show that society is primarily founded on patriarchy and that men oppress and exploit women. They suggest that the inequality of power within the family maintains men’s power and so domestic violence is inevitable. Similarly, Dobash and Dobash suggest that marriage legitimises violence against women as it provides the male with power and the women with dependency, therefore evidently showing no signs of equality. Thus, this disputes the statement of gender roles and relationships becoming more equal with 1 in 4 women being assaulted in their lifetime according to Mirrlees-Black. Finally, childcare which is essentially about exercising responsibility for another person who is not fully responsible for herself and it entails seeing to all aspects of the child’s security and well-being, her growth and development at any and all times. Mary Boulton ( 1983 ) argues the exaggeration in the extent of men’s involvement in childcare and she denies that questions about who does what give a true picture of conjugal roles. She also claims that although men might help with particular tasks, it is their wives who retain primary responsibility for children. It is the wives who relegate non-domestic aspects of their lives to a low priority. This shows that there is still inequality in terms of childcare in conjugal relationships. In addition, Elsa Ferri and Kate Smith provide some empirical support for Boulton by conducting a study based on National Child Development Survey. The survey found it was still very rare for fathers to take primary responsibility for childcare. In both the sample of mothers and the sample of fathers it was very rare in dual-earner families, no-earner families or families where only the mother worked, for the man to be normally responsible for the children or to look after them when they were ill. In almost every category the man was the main carer in 4 percent or less of families. This is also supported by the radical feminist idea of ‘gender scripts’ in that there are expected norms in terms of gender roles and so patriarchal relationships are inevitable. Therefore, they suggest that equality without burdens will only be reached through same-sex relationships as this eliminates the ‘gender script’ idea. Thus, this enhances the inequality of the family, and suggests that the view that conjugal relationships are becoming more equal is in fact incorrect as the inevitability of patriarchal relationships means that equality cannot be established. In conclusion, I have discussed and assessed the view that conjugal relationships are based on equality in modern industrial societies by evaluating three sections which are hours worked, power and childcare. With all of the statement, I believe that conjugal relationships in modern industrial societies are not based on equality.

Writing Academic Paragraphs Essays

Writing Academic Paragraphs Essays Writing Academic Paragraphs Paper Writing Academic Paragraphs Paper then that paragraph probably lacks coherence. Coherence in a paragraph depends chiefly on ordering the sentences according to a logic that is easy to follow. One sentence should logically, sensibly, grow out of the preceding sentence, as if the writers thoughts are flowing on and on. Often the plan of development is so easy that readers may be unaware of it. Order of Importance Order of importance is a way of organizing ideas according to the degree of their value, power, authority, interest, or quality. A paragraph may begin with the least important item and progress to the most important (ascending order), thus building the readers interest. Alternatively, the most-toleast-important order (descending order) may be used if the writer wants to arouse the readers attention immediately. AUTUMNTENSA- 2008 8 Source: Internet University of Dalat – Department of Foreign Languages WRITING ACADEMIC PARAGRAPHS Order of Generality Order of generality is a way of arranging ideas according to their breadth or scope. When a paragraph is organized from the general to the particular, ideas are presented that are increasingly narrow or specific. The paragraph might begin by identifying a major issue, continue by focusing on just part of the issue, and conclude by giving examples of the part. On the other hand, when a paragraph is organized from particular to general, increasingly broad ideas are presented. Such a paragraph might begin with a concrete observation, expand the observation to an idea, and enlarge the idea to a rule or general statement. Comparison and Contrast Comparison and contrast are useful methods for developing a topic that consists of two or more similar items. When items are compared, the writer shows how they are alike. When items are contrasted, the writer is able to show how the items differ. A paragraph may be developed through comparison, or contrast, or both. There are two main ways to develop a paragraph by comparison or contrast. One way is to alternate details, following each point about one item with a corresponding point about the other. The pattern of this kind of development is AB AB AB. The second way is to present all of the details about one item before taking up the other. This pattern is AAA BBB. Whichever approach is selected, make certain that the treatment is balancedthat every point of comparison or contrast is applied to both items. Cause and Effect When a paragraph is organized by cause and effect, the writer is providing an explanation of the relationship between two items. A cause produces a result; an effect is a result of a cause. To claim that one event or condition causes another is to say that the first brings about the second. Organizing a paragraph by cause and effect can be accomplished in two ways: (1) Begin the paragraph with an effect and then follow with the causes of the effect. 2) Begin with a cause and follow with its effects. If the writers objective is show why something exists or occurs, then effectsto-causes is the better choice. If the writers goal is to show consequences, then the causes-to-effects order is more appropriate. Paragraph Coherence The three qualities by which a paragraph is evaluated are unity, development, and coherence. We have alr eady discussed unity and development, leaving only coherence. However, coherence is a quality which many writers have trouble achieving in their paragraphs. In fact, coherence may be the most difficult quality for most students to achieve in their writing. Coherence refers to how well the contents of a paragraph hang together. Achieving unity in your paragraphs is a good start on coherence as is having the substantive supporting detail that helps you to achieve paragraph development. However, coherence goes beyond achieving unity or avoiding digressions. Coherence refers to how the individual sentencestheir order within the paragraph and their individual structuresrelate to one another in shaping the paragraph. In order to achieve paragraph coherence, you must look at a number of different elements in your paragraph: AUTUMNTENSA- 2008 9 Source: Internet University of Dalat – Department of Foreign Languages WRITING ACADEMIC PARAGRAPHS the organizational pattern the use of transitional devices the repetition of key words or related terms, including pronouns the occurrence of parallel syntactic structures Connections Between Sentences by S. Marques, Kentridge High School A good paragraph has unity: All the sentences have a relationship to one another and to the main idea. The connection between sentences in a paragraph can be shown in several ways, but principally by the use of transitional words and phrases. Transitional words and phrases may be conjunctions, such as and, but, and however, or explanatory expressions, such as for instance, on the other hand, and so on. Transitional words and phrases act as signals. They give directions. They tell where the paragraph is going. In this sense, transitional words and phrases also act to hold sentences together, achieving unity. Here are some of the most commonly used connecting words and phrases and the purposes they serve. Purpose Connecting Word/Phrase To add another idea furthermore, in ddition, also, moreover, likewise, similarly first, finally, meanwhile, eventually, next, subsequently, To arrange ideas in order or time ultimately, at the same time To add an illustration or for example, for instance, in other words explanation hence, therefore, thus, accordingly, in brief, in conclusion, To conclude or sum up consequently To connect two contrasting ideas; on the other hand, however, yet, conversely, nonetheless, to differeniate ideas nev ertheless, rather, although, on the contrary indeed, naturally, of course, certainly, undoubtedly, admittedly, To emphasize or confirm plainly Logical Connectives Additionally, the logical development chosen for the paragraph can be made very clear to the reader by the words used to connect one sentence to the next. These words are often referred to as logical connectives because they make clear not only the order but also the meaning of the writing. Each organizational pattern has its own logical connectives. Order of importance may be emphasized with transitional words and expressions such as first, a second factor, equally important, furthermore, of major concern, finally, least important, and most important. Transitional expressions such as equally, similarly, just as, however, on the other hand, despite, and otherwise may be used to emphasize comparison or contrast. Words particularly suited to writing about causes and effects are as a result, because, consequently, and therefore. AUTUMNTENSA- 2008 10 Source: Internet

Prompt 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Prompt 1 - Essay Example It used to be that when I did not know the meaning of a particular word I would go to a dictionary and read the definition. The dictionary also included other forms of the word, something about its origin, pronunciation and how it is used in a sentence. However, on the Internet when I look up a word I can look everything connected to it. I can even narrowly define that word and just follow those threads which pertain to that narrow definition. I can look up the history of the word and learn all about those who have used it in public documents, the history of those people and the world in which they lived, and the results of their use of the word. For example, looking up the word "liberty" in Google results in 84,300,000 results. The results on the first page are considered to be the most relevant by this search engine. It lists some places, some images related to the word, a Wikipedia article on the word, some places of business local to the searchers area and links to related searches, one of which is the Statue of Liberty. If I follow the link to the Statue of Liberty there are that thousands more places to go related to the Statue of Liberty. This may seem superficial and certainly if this was all anyone did with this that would be the result. However, this is not where it stops for most people. Socializing on the Internet is also a place for sharing what one finds. This can lead to a number of people conducting more searches and then sharing again. The sharing of information often prompts people to look for more, but this does not limit one to â€Å"superficial† information. The pastor of one Christian church in Hong Kong searches the Internet before writing her sermon for the week, so that she can get a number of different perspectives on her chosen Bible passage or Gospel. She then reflects upon what she has found and prays for wisdom. When she sits down to

Powell v. Alabama Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Powell v. Alabama - Case Study Example Most of the local bar despite the order of the court withdrew from the case. Two attorneys did appear on behalf on the accused but the appearance could be described as superfluous at best because the attorneys had no opportunity to investigate the case and consulted with the defendants for only thirty minutes prior to the trials. Not surprisingly, eight of the defendants were convicted and sentenced to death after quick trials. There was a hung jury in the case of the remaining defendant. The lower court argued that each state is its' own sovereign and that accordingly, each state has the right to decide what it will and will not give to its' indigent defendants. One does not have an absolute right to counsel in the state system and a state cannot be ordered to pay for the defense of it's defendants. In one hundred and forty years, the legal governance of the states has never been interfered with, so why should it happen now The decision of the lower state court was reversed and remanded back to the lower court for further proceedings. Ultimately the court held that the fundamental due process rights of the defendants had been violated. The court found that fundamental due process rights carry both into the state court and the federal courts. One's due pro One's due process rights do not drop simply because there is a change in venue. Due to the lack of counsel the defendants were not granted a fair and impartial trial. Indeed, the entire proceedings were found to be deliberately contrived so as not to afford the defendants an impartial jury. Blacks were systematically not picked for the jury. The defendants were unable to prepare with their attorneys and finally were not even asked if they wanted attorneys. Supreme Court Decision 1. The rule denying the aid of counsel to persons charged with felony, which (except as to legal questions) existed in England. Page 287 U. S. 46 2. The rule that no part of the Constitution shall be treated as superfluous is an aid to construction which, in some instances, may be conclusive, but which must yield to more compelling considerations whenever they exist. P. 287 U. S. 67. 3. The fact that the right of an accused person to have counsel for his defense was guaranteed expressly (as respects the federal Government) by the Sixth Amendment, notwithstanding the presence of the due process clause in the Fifth Amendment, does not exclude that right from the concept "due process of law." Pp. 287 U. S. 66-68. 4. The right of the accused, at least in a capital case, to have the aid of counsel for his defense, which includes the right to have sufficient time to advise with counsel and to prepare a defense, is one of the fundamental rights guaranteed by the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Pp. 287 U. S. 68-71. 5. In a capital case, where the defendant is unable to employ counsel and is incapable of making his own defense adequately because of ignorance, feeble-mindedness, illiteracy or the like, it is the duty of the court, whether requested or not, to assign counsel for him as a necessary requisite of due process of law, and that duty is not discharged by an assignment at such a time and under such circumstances as to preclude the giving of effective aid in the preparation and trial

Argument Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Argument - Essay Example Thus, the issue of awarding the capital punishment remains a highly controversial topic across the world. In the US many states award death penalty to offenders who commit premeditated homicide while some others do not have capital punishment. Killing a human being intentionally is a heinous crime and offenders who commit premeditated homicide need to be punished with capital punishment to deter others from engaging in such criminal activities. Criminal justice system awards punishment to the criminals with a view to prevent the recurrence of crimes. The society considers that every criminal offender needs to be awarded a punishment appropriate to the crime he or she commits. Thus, the advocates of death penalty contend that when capital punishment is awarded to a person who commits murder, â€Å"potential murderers will think twice before killing for fear of losing their own life† (The Death Penalty: Arguments for and Against the Death Penalty 1). Evidence also points to an a nalysis by the criminologist Isaac Ehrlich, which shows that â€Å"for every inmate who was executed, 7 lives were spared† as other perpetrators become deterred from committing similar crimes (1). This source concedes to the fact that studies relating to deterrence are sometimes â€Å"inconclusive† but it attributes this to the rare use of death penalty and the delay in its execution (1). Thus, it can be construed that death penalty acts as a deterrent to crime, which is a â€Å"practical justification† for the award of capital punishment (2). Criminal justice system relies on the basic tenet that every crime deserves a proportionate punishment for meeting the objectives of natural justice. Therefore, it appears natural that the person who perpetrates a premeditated murder of another person should be punished with death so that the victim and his or her family receive justice. Thus, the principle evolves that criminal justice must consider the extent of â€Å"h arm caused by the criminal† and award a punishment that is â€Å"proportionate† to the crime (Bidinotto 20). However, the opponents of capital punishment hold the view that punitive measures derive from the concept of vengeance and the â€Å"vindictive notion of an eye for an eye† (23). Refuting this theory, Bidinotto argues that justice does not rely on the notion of vengeance but, on the other hand, is â€Å"based on retribution† (23). He further contends that showing mercy to murderers amounts to â€Å"negation of simple justice† and will actually act as an encouragement for criminals as they can â€Å"gain more from crimes than any costs they will have to bear† (23). Thus, it becomes evident that a punishment proportionate to the crime is only moral and, therefore, the award of capital punishment to a murderer is justified. Deliberate murder is a crime that destabilizes the society and, therefore, when such crimes occur the community has a responsibility to respond. The death penalty can be considered as a â€Å"uniquely powerful† response to such a crime due to its being a â€Å"permanent† solution that cannot be â€Å"retracted or overturned† (Gelernter 26). Thus, by awarding death penalty to criminals who commit the offence of premeditated homicide, society makes a proclamation that such crimes are â€Å"absolutely evil and absolutely intolerable† (26). Therefore, it will dissuade criminals from engaging in such crimes and reduce murders. Though the opponents of death penalty are

Industrial Design And Engineering Design Cultural Studies Essay

Industrial Design And Engineering Design Cultural Studies Essay This paper gathers views in the literature on design thinking and representation of design processes from the point of view of industrial design and engineering design. The paper conducts a critical review of texts dealing with differences and similarities in design processes in the field of industrial design as opposed to engineering design, with particular attention to the elements of creativity in product design. The design of a consumer electrical appliance such as a hair dryer and the larger dimensions of car design are areas where what an industrial designer might do and what a design engineer might do can be usefully compared and contrasted. The paper goes on to survey the field of product design from a different perspective, that of art. It takes up the challenge to traditional design by the Bauhaus movement in Germany in the1920s to 1930s, and the Memphis movement of the 19760s to 1980s. It is a valid question, apart from the how of product design, to ask whether new movements or initiatives might easily change the what of the design world, and through emphasis on fashion and style both industrial designers and engineering designers might find themselves creating new, more creative patterns and products. Background The combined shortage of designers and demands of manufacturers led to criticism of industry by such designers as William Morris and John Ruskin who could see that separation of design from the processes of production had influenced esthetic quality (Haskett 1977). This paper explains how industrial design focuses on user interface and esthetic quality. At the same time engineering design has become a key element in product design, applying engineering principles to developing components, systems and processes to meet specific needs. A concept of an artisan, craftsperson, who is totally free to invent art forms and create designs, with no restriction, is not reflected in the history of art and craft, whether in Europe or in Asia. There is the economic restriction that there must be a user who purchases the work or supports the craftsperson; and it should be kept in mind that craft requires a properly equipped workplace and usually workers. There is the social reality of the acceptance of the work of a craftsperson and the general estimation of its value. Thus in focusing on the inseparability of invention and execution as it may be applied to design, the anachronistic idea of individualism need not be introduced in order to understand the creative process. A key condition is the ability of craft to produce the designs that emerge. Technology has, essentially, made that a very possible prospect. Further, in terms of a reciprocal effect of design on craft, the use of computerised design and the production of computer software to meet designers demands, along with the common feedback effect on production of new computer hardware, can mean that craft and design can contribute to each other. The Collins English Dictionary defines technology as the application of practical sciences to industry or commence, or the total knowledge and skills available to any human society for industry, art, science, etc. (1995). Barras (1986) has argued that the typical course of development in services has been from process innovation and focus on the new product design and market, then moving to achieving economies of scale and low costs. The decline of the traditional craft apprenticeship system meant that craftspeople became more familiar with others in in terior, industrial, theatre and product design, and with architecture, fashion, and performance art (Margetts 1989, pp.9-10). Although an industrial-design profession did not exist in the late nineteenth century, the architect Frank Lloyd Wright articulated its principles in 1901 by advising artists create prototypes for factory reproduction rather than to produce craft work. After 1900, manufacturers tried to give new form to electrical appliances, cars and other new technologies. In the 1920s, some decorators took up French modern styles, and Art Deco was adopted in the late 1920s. The Bauhaus school of art and design, closed by the Nazi regime in 1933, established a relationship between design and industrial techniques as well as between fine and applied arts (Chilvers Glaves-Smith). From there, there has been rapid growth in the design of manufactured products. Henry Fords rigid standardization, interchangeable parts, and special-purpose machine tools complemented Fords introduction of the assembly line in 1913, resulting in vastly increased production volume and relentless cost reduction. Global competition in the 1980s and 1990s impelled designers to give form to the hardware and software of the information age. Quality became a key criterion also (Volti 2005). Affective design that is able to translate human affections into product design specifications has been widely accepted as an effective tool for product development. It enables designers to identify product features that can meet consumer needs to feel satisfied with a product. Affective design knowledge can help designers improve product design (Zhai et al. 2009). Environmentally friendliness of consumer products is another aspect of design, but it has been observed that consumers need to be reminded of ecological issues when actually using the product. It is worth noting that it is a holistic, life-cycle-based analysis that will enable the designer to assess the environmental impact of design options: environmental damage can occur as toxic emissions during production, energy consumption during use, or toxic waste during disposal (Saue et al. 2002). As far as the larger environment is concerned, the US electrical industry has contributed played a part in the use of consumer goods ( Carlson 2001). Design encompasses these issues. Industrial Design Industrial design may be defined as The ideation, specification, and development of functions, properties and concepts of industrially manufactured products and systems, mainly regarding aspects of user-products interaction, aesthetics and identity considering a totality of ergonomic, usability, technical, economic and social factors (Warell 1999). Industrial designers are concerned with communicating the quality and function of a product as well as the reputation of the manufacturer object by visual means. The product should be easy, comfortable and safe to use (Dieter 1991, p.111). The industrial designer emphasises the user and the purpose of the product; its esthetic nature, including not only style and appearance but what the product will convey to the owner in emotional terms; and product identity, which may apply to strategic positioning within a specific market and linkages with other products. In the design process the designer has considerable freedom to decide on how an optimal result is achieved (Green Bonollo 2004). This illustrates the way in which creativity informs industrial design. Design is a part of product planning and development that come from the business strategy of the client company and are marketed and distributed in order to await success at the hands of the consumer (Cross 2000, p.198). Analysis of features of competing products, the use of benchmarking, or research into user needs and preferences may take place. Specifications may be elaborated and concepts critically examined (Green Bonollo 2004). Conceptualisation refers to highlights in the creative process. Synectics is a group technique which draws on analogical thinking, identifying parallels between apparently dissimilar topics (Dieter 1991, p.113). A process of rough visualisation through sketching may follow. At some point an industrial designer will have a basic idea of the concept to be embodied in the product-how it works, the overall shape and so on. In this phase the schemes are worked up in greater detail and, if there is more than one, a final choice between them is made. The end product is usually a set of general arrangement drawings. There is (or should be) a great deal of feedback from this phase to the conceptual design phase (Cross 2000). Before selecting a concept, industrial designer needs to consider the availability of technology: if there is no existing technology that can be used for a design, the industrial designer will need to consult with engineering designer. Dorst (2003) argues that the interaction itself has to be designed: the industrial designer should use design techniques such as scenario-based design and storytelling to deal with this issue effectively. A Rapid Prototype model may be made in order to finalise design details. In addition, industrial designers may carry out styling, where components of style are built into their own designs. This can involve materials or techniques, environmental influences or social trends (Mayall 1967). Detailed design issues follow: component parts, nesting, packaging, shipping and marketing issues may be relevant. Colour and placement of the brand name are important (Cross 2000, p 32).Finally the industrial designer uses three-dimensional computer programs such as Solidworks to create actual size 3D models and engineering drawings to be used in production. Engineering Design Engineering design tends to relate to the technical operation of mechanized products rather than their esthetic characteristics. In the automobile industry, stylists were used at General Motors as intermediaries between the mechanical engineers and consumers. What these stylists did was to give cars a visual identity through the shape of the body, grille or dashboard design, or colour choices and interior fabrics (Woodham 2006, p.141). Engineering design is design with particular emphasis on the technical aspects of a product. It includes activities of analysis as well as synthesis. This definition broadly describes what engineering designers do. They may be concerned with aspects of engineering consideration that includes machine elements, solid mechanics, strength of materials, aerodynamics, fluid mechanics, hydraulics, electronics engineering, software and systems engineering, quality engineering, industrial economics and human-factors engineering (Warell 1999). A formal definition of engineering design is found in the curriculum guidelines of the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET). The ABET definition states that engineering design is the process of devising a system, component, or process to meet desired needs. It is a decision-making process (often iterative), in which the basic sciences, mathematics, and engineering sciences are applied to convert resources optimally to meet a stated objective. Engineering design should be creative and use open-ended problems and modern design theory and methodology. The approach process of engineering design is more systematic and problem-focused than industrial design. Engineering design is a sequential process consisting of many design operations. It may include exploring the use of alternative systems, formulating a mathematical model of the best system concept, or specifying subsystem components. It could mean selecting a material from which to manufacturer a part (Birmingham et al. 1997). In the product planning and task verification phase, the roles of engineering designer and industrial designer are similar, though a particular concern of the engineering designer will be what the client requested. Conceptualisation for the engineering designer involves determining the elements and mechanisms to be used in the product. This will often involve formulating a model, either analytical or experimental (Dieter 1983). Before moving to the embodiment stage, it is important for the engineering designer to understand the strengths and weaknesses of mechanisms, concepts or material and be able choose the one most appropriate to the product function. An excellent technique to guide the designer in making the best decision is a scoring matrix, which forces a more penetrating study of each alternative against specified criteria (Haik 2003). Embodiment involves the clear determination of the physical processes which govern the main flows and conversions of material, energy, and information. This stage of engineering design includes building and testing experimental models. Dieter (1983) notes that this phase lays the basis for good detail design by means of a structured development of the design concept. Most of the time engineering design requires experimentation where a piece of hardware is constructed and tested to verify the concept and analysis of the design as to its work ability, durability, and performance characteristics. The design on paper is transformed into a physical reality. Three techniques of construction are available to the designer: the mock-up, generally constructed to scale from plastics, wood, cardboard, and so forth. It is often used to check clearance, assembly technique, manufacturing considerations, and appearance. It is the least expensive technique, provides the least amount of information, a nd is quick and relatively easy to build. The model is a mathematical representation of the physical system. The prototype is the most expensive experimental technique but the one producing the greatest amount of useful information (Haik 2003): In the detailed design stage, the engineering designer may find many complex interrelationships involved in the product. The quality and cost advantage of a product are determined by the level of quality detail. Manufacturing specialists may also be involved. This is now a tested and producible product. The arrangement, form, dimensions, tolerances and surface properties of all individual parts and the materials and manufacturing processes are all specified (Dieter 1983). Communication and preparation for production now follows a sequential flow of operations. Tooling and machinery are laid down. Production cost estimates will be available, but close collaboration with mechanical engineers is necessary and high costs could mean changes in materials and even in design. The colour of a car is usually applied as paint, but paint goes beyond merely esthetic and cosmetic features. Consumers and manufacturers have to face the fact that new investment in vehicles is extremely expensive, and consumers are not inclined to accept alternative or radical designs. Paint is a comparatively cheap way out of this, and plastic components are painted as well. Paint thus keeps the car looking good, but it no doubt inhibits the use of new alternative materials or new manufacturing initiatives in design this in turn could inhibit the extensive adoption of new and alternative materials (Nieuwenhuis et al. 2006). The engineer manages schedules and uses resources after research in the car industry. He or she is also participant and communicator of design. The desire to be more ecologically and environmentally aware has had a major influence on automobile design. Automobile design factors will need to be covered as a broad range rather than just by focusing on particular single consumer requirements. The car has to meet human needs but also to be environmentally friendly. This will entail: (1) technological support for automobile design, (2) product innovation for various automobile prototypes (low emission car, high efficiency car, friendly car, advanced safety car), and (3) design methodologies (e.g., CAD-CAE-CAM, real time simulations, rapid prototype systems, parameter design technologies) (Ardayfio 2000). Design innovation, often pushed by customer needs and expectations, enables companies to gain leadership in an extremely competitive global marketplace. But products need to go beyond customer expectations. Industrially also, innovation is needed to remain competitive (Ardayfio 2000). Art and Design Apart from the creativity of design, there is the excitement of design. Bertola (2003) argues that design is a multifunctional activity. It can take many forms to adapt to contextual infrastructures, that is different organizations and purposes. Design can act as a knowledge broker, flowing from outside to inside companies. Design, if it is seen as a knowledge process that can adapt, can also be seen as an opportunity to support innovation in a particular context. This paper began with reference to creativity in product design. Button (2000) takes up the concept of ethnography in relation to design. Ethnographical field work has tried to analyse foreign cultures from the inside, developing theories about exotic cultures. But design in a Western culture can also be seen in terms of ethnography. This is particularly so in the context of industrial design, whose origins are quite recent. Ethnomethodology suggests that it is just not possible to go beyond the knowledge possessed by members of a society about what they do. Whatever explication given by the ethnographer may not be of interest to design engineers, for example, but the substance of his or her report should be recognisable to them. From an anthropological or sociological point of view, there is some logic in this. However this paper, building on what has been said about industrial design and engineering design, argues a further point: that the concept of design as allied to art can eas ily be misplaced or forgotten in an organisational situation where the concern is to produce a product. A Bauhaus or Memphis, even a postmodernist initiative, may not emerge from a tunnel of emphasis on products as products. This is where product design, along with architecture, has a place in the overall scope of Design and Art. There is an imagination within the desire to produce something novel. This is a field that allows the operation of graphic art, and a sculptured three dimensional impression that includes the artifact as well as the common consumer purchases. If modernism and postmodernism are currents, then they may be described as floating currents because they are difficult to locate precisely. The two currents interact at some points. In art, modernism may be said to date from about 1860, and became an orthodox school in the 1920s. Modernism tended to stress form more than content and to reject traditional esthetic values. It was very influential until about 1960, and then postmodernism came into vogue. It has been related to poststructuralist writers Jacques Derrida and Michel Foucault, whose writings embodied a radical relativism which was able to be used to deconstruct the status quo. It is important to note however that there have been 250 years of intellectual-literary-artistic alienation when from Rousseau onwards artists tried to stand aside from mainstream culture. Modernism and postmodernism are part of that overall movement (Murphey 1999). The Italian design group Memphis was a flash of artistic input to interior design. It is said to be part of postmodernism. The trend crystallized in Memphis was away from the decorative styles of the Arts and Crafts movement. Symbolism, pattern and of course ornament were relegated essentially to the modern era. The Bauhaus designs with their geometry dovetailed into a simplicity which in Italy focused on furniture design. The Memphis Group emerged. Austrian-born, Italian-educated Ettore Sottsass formed Memphis in 1981, with a loosely-formed group of designers. The designs that emanated out of the Memphis group included limited productions of unusual and functional designs, characterized by plastic laminated surfaces and bold colours and patterns.   The interpretation of the group has involved making a political statement: high and low classes should share perceptions and ideals. Meecham and Wood examine the proposition that as art itself has fundamentally changed in the modern period, so have ideas about it (1996, p.1). Postmodernism may be said to differ from modernism in that it returns art to a representation of the worldattempts to restore art to its external referencesRepresentational art is back, but it tends to be critical rather than celebratory, stressing bleak and shocking images rather than the beauty of nature or intimations of divine order (Veath quoted in Murphey, 1999). A group of designers of furniture and household accessories, who were known for erratic, illogical, avant-garde and anti-establishment style, Memphis in being concerning with juxtaposing reality infiltrated the world of the imagination, in a way that was deeper and different from the modern. There is a need to look back to compare with the modern, because in many ways this is a necessary context for the description of the postmodern. The Modernists had disliked decoration and colour, but Postmodernism used them with enthusiasm. Allegory, multi-historical and multi-cultural references came into new design. Memphis bad taste was an ironic bad taste. Pattern and ornament are characteristic of the works, just as they were alien to Modernism. The impression is kitsch, cheap and nasty materials, and bad taste throughout. Whether it is self-conscious or even self-mocking, the point is made that this is not modernism (Reed 1984). The bright and careless style of some of the Memphis design will have been trendy once, and some people will have worn them at some times. However these designs are bold and brazen. They seem directed to a middle class or intellectual section of society that likes to be overexpressive and does not care even if there are consequences for being like this. That is the impression I had, and that was the impression I gained from overhearing two possibly third year students who seemed to have generally quite mature attitudes on art. A group of designers of furniture and household accessories, who were known for erratic, illogical, avant-garde and anti-establishment style, Memphis in being concerning with juxtaposing reality infiltrated the world of the imagination, in a way that was deeper and different from the modern. There is a need to look back to compare with the modern, because in many ways this is a necessary context for the description of the postmodern. The Modernists had disliked decoration and colour, but Postmodernism used them with enthusiasm. Allegory, multi-historical and multi-cultural references came into new design. If accused of bad taste, Memphis would have said, Of course. Their bad taste was an ironic bad taste, but there was bad taste in their work. These attributes of Memphis no doubt related to its short-lived presence in the art world (Watson 2002). In a sense furniture design itself is an activity that can easily push against the boundaries of modernism, if only because small aspects of furniture design can jump past the outrageous modern stage into a stage which inverts and turns around artistic insights at will, lampooning commercial motives as it goes. The postmodern impulse that seems to be emerging from every joint is somehow trying to say, or saying, that this is something to sit on and it will probably hold you up, too, but you need to see it as something a little funny, a little amusing. Memphis asks not to be taken too seriously. This whimsical face of furniture design has a certain class aspect inasmuch as the poor and the working classes cannot afford to see their houses and what goes in them in terms of play. The question will be more often whether they can afford to buy furniture. Modern art and particularly postmodern art go beyond this basic complexion of need. Conclusion A striking thing that comes out of this survey of writing on the role of industrial design versus engineering design is the interdependence of the two. This may not mean an interrelated operation or a simultaneous operation involving the two aspects of engineering, but it is clear that to present an optimally designed product in the industrial sense means that it must work in the engineering sense. And engineering designers must be able to locate the device or consumer good within a framework of its production and ultimately its marketing and use. There are many articles on this issue that could have been referred to here, or summarised, or responded to in some way. However the coverage here is no doubt adequate to show how industrial and engineering designs are complementary. What has emerged most strikingly from the whole context of industrial design is its potential responsiveness to the culture in which it exists. It is possible to look back at various movements that have shaped the consumer products with which people are so familiar in their everyday lives, and where their parents have seen changes over the years. The Bauhaus, now a long time past, had a distinct and revolutionary approach to design. Memphis similarly had an avant garde approach which vanished into air. Whether such movements will resurface in some other form will probably not be the doing of the design engineer. But it may arise out of the imaginative design of the industrial designer. It may also arise as a resolution of forces in society that may flow conservatively for a time and then suddenly change direction. This can affect everyday objects-the hair dryer, the car, the television set, the computer and so on. It has certainly affected the miniaturised communication device, the m obile telephone. The fuel consuming, polluting yet status symbolic institution of the automobile will no doubt respond to pressures to change. There is an art in design that over time is likely to surface in different ways and in different places. In this context, the industrial designer along with the design engineer is likely to be closely involved.

The Catcher In The Rye- TERM PAPER -- essays research papers

It is all Fun and Games until Someone Looses a Rye   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Once is a generation, a book is written that transcends reality and humanity .The Catcher in the Rye, by JD Salinger, combines a unique style, controversial theme, and thought provoking main character in this perceptive study of the human condition. This postwar novel protests against the loss of innocence and hypocrisy of the era and is the definitive coming of age novel. Salinger constructs a shocking reality, populated by ‘phonies’ and bursting with falsities- a reality that is all too real.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Catcher in the Rye is the story of a young man's understanding of the world he lives in, and the things he encounters (Lomazoff 3). This work is similar to other famous and influential works of the same nature. For example, Maxwell Geismar sums up the novel as â€Å"†¦an eminently readable and quotable [novel] in its tragicomic narrative of preadolescent revolt. Compact, taut, and colorful, the first half presents in brief compass all then petty horrors, the banalities, the final mediocrity of the American prep school† (Geismar 195). Holden can not understand the purgatory of Pency prep, and futilely escapes from one dark world into darker world of New York City. The second half of the novel raises the intriguing questions and incorporates the deeper meaning of the work (Geismar). Holden sits on the cusp of adulthood, tethering dangerously close to his fate and reality and The Catcher in the Rye is the story of his journey into the adult world. In addition, this novel is similar to other famous works of the same nature. Salinger emulates elements of Shakespeare's Hamlet and Twain's Huckleberry Finn. Like Huck Finn, The Catcher in the Rye is the story of a young man’s journey into adulthood. Holden journeys into the human condition, Huck likewise seeks out human nature. Huck, like Holden, hates hypocrisy, and fells the need to search for integrity. Similarly, both works start out the same way. Their simple exposition of location and scope draws in the mind, and fastens it securely to the page. Holden’s opening speech is merely a modernized and adapted version of Huck’s. Holden Caulfield strikes many readers as an urbanized version of Huck Finn (Lomazoff 3). In William Shakespeare’s Hamlet, things Price Hamlet cannot control dominate his thoughts and life. ... ...universal meaning of the novel has won over even the most stubborn censors. Critics love this novel, and praise the author. Burger admires the theme, style, diction, and the issues raised in his review for The New York Times (Burger). Smith praises the adolescent nature, magic of the novel, and psychoanalysis of teens in the Saturday Review of Literature (Smith). Both men understand the motivation of Salinger, and respectfully praise his coming-of age masterpiece. This unusually brilliant novel withstood the critics before angry censors.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Catcher in the Rye is universally appealing as a coming of age novel. Holden Caulfield is the ultimate protagonist, and stands for everything that is good within the human spirit. The Catcher in the Rye raises questions that are of epic proportions, and masterfully allows the scholar to interpret an individual answer. Perhaps Holden is too raunchy, perverse, or mentally unstable to be a hero; yet his human side and flaws are what seem to be his most idiosyncratic and admirable traits. Holden Caulfield, this modern Huckleberry Finn, reminds everyone of how bad growing up feels but never makes us feel sorry for it.